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{{short description|Indo-Aryan language}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Domari
| nativename       = Dōmʋārī, Dōmʋārī ǧib, Dômarî ĵib, {{Script/Arabic|دٛومَرِي}}, {{Script/Hebrew|דּוֹמָרִי}}
| image            = Domari.svg
| states           = [[Azerbaijan]], [[Mauritania]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Egypt]], [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]], [[Morocco]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Sudan]], and perhaps neighboring countries{{sfn|Matras|2012}}
| region           = [[Middle East and North Africa]], [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]]
| ethnicity        = [[Dom people|Dom]]
| speakers         = {{sigfig|280,270|2}}
| date             = 2015
| ref              = e19
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
| fam3             = [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
| fam4             = [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]] (Hindustani){{sfn|Herin|2016}}
| script           = [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]
| iso3             = rmt
| glotto           = doma1258
| glottorefname    = Domari
| dia1             = Northern Domari
| dia2             = Southern Domari
| map2             = Lang Status 40-SE.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Domari is classified as Severely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]]<br> [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}}
}}

'''Domari''' is an endangered [[Indo-Aryan language]], spoken by [[Dom people]] scattered across the [[Middle East and North Africa]]. The language is reported to be spoken as far north as Azerbaijan and as far south as central Sudan, in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria and Lebanon.{{sfn|Matras|2012}} Based on the systematicity of sound changes, it is known with a fair degree of certainty that the names ''Domari'' and ''[[Romani people|Romani]]'' derive from the Indo-Aryan word ''ḍom''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/whatis/language/origins.shtml |title=History of the Romani language |website=Romani Project |publisher=University of Manchester |access-date=20 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126224044/https://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/whatis/language/origins.shtml |archive-date=2023-01-26}}</ref> Although they are both [[Central Indo-Aryan languages]], Domari and [[Romani language|Romani]] do not derive from the same immediate ancestor.<ref name="Matras2"/> The Arabs referred to them as ''[[Nawar (people)|Nawar]]'' as they were a nomadic people that originally immigrated to the Middle East from the [[Indian subcontinent]].{{sfn|Matras|2000}}

Domari is also known as "Middle Eastern Romani", "Tsigene", "Luti", or "Mehtar". There is no standard written form. In the [[Arab world]], it is occasionally written using the [[Arabic script]] and has many [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] loanwords.{{sfn|Williams|2000}} Descriptive work was done by [[Yaron Matras]],{{sfn|Matras|1996}} who published a comprehensive grammar of the language along with a historical and dialectological evaluation of secondary sources.{{sfn|Matras|2012}}

Domari is an endangered language, as there is currently pressure to shift away from it in younger generations, according to Yaron Matras.{{sfn|Matras|1999}} In certain areas such as Jerusalem, only about 20% of the Dom people speak the Domari language in everyday interactions. The language is mainly spoken by the elderly in the Jerusalem community. The younger generation are more influenced by Arabic, therefore most only know basic words and phrases. The modern-day community of Doms in Jerusalem was established by the nomadic people deciding to settle inside the Old City from 1940 until it came under Israeli administration in 1967 (Matras 1999).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GiTPVVxP7OoC&pg=PA52|title=Language Contact|page=57}}</ref>

== Dialects ==
The best-known variety of Domari is Palestinian Domari, also known as "Syrian Gypsy", the dialect of the Dom community of [[Jerusalem]], which was described by [[R. A. Stewart Macalister|R.A. S. Macalister]] in the 1910s. Palestinian Domari is an endangered language, with fewer than 200 speakers, the majority of the 1,200 members of the Jerusalem Domari community being native speakers of [[Palestinian Arabic]].

Other dialects include:
*[[Nawari]] in [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]] and [[Egypt]].
*Kurbati in [[Syria]]
*Helebi in Egypt, [[Libya]], [[Tunisia]], [[Algeria]] and [[Morocco]]
*Halab/Ghajar in [[Sudan]].{{sfn|Rao|n.d.}}
*[[Garachi language|Karachi]] ([[Garachi]]) in northern [[Turkey]], northern [[Iran]] and the Caucasus
*Marashi in Turkey
*Barake in [[Syria]]

Some dialects may be highly divergent and not mutually intelligible. Published sources often lump together dialects of Domari and the various unrelated in-group vocabularies of diverse peripatetic populations in the Middle East. Thus, the [[Ghorbati]] and [[Lyuli]] were previously thought to speak a dialect of Domari. There is also no obvious connection between Domari and the vocabulary used by the Helebi of Egypt (see discussion in Matras 2012, chapter 1).

== Status ==
In the 1940s, the Dom began to abandon their nomadic culture and began settling and working in the local economy. This led to the next phenomenon: the assimilation of ''Dom'' children in the primary school system, which marked the first generation to grow up in an academic environment alongside Arab children. Consequently, this 1940 generation do not fluently speak the Domari language. Arabic replaced their native Domari, and became the language of cross-generation communication. In Jerusalem, it is estimated there are about 600-900 members of the ''Dom'' population in Jerusalem. Less than 10% can effectively communicate in Jerusalem Domari.{{sfn|Matras|2005}}

== Comparison with Romani ==
Domari was once thought to be the "sister language" of [[Romani language|Romani]], the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent, but more recent research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within the [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]] ([[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom are most likely to be descendants of two different migration waves out of India, separated by several centuries.{{sfn|Hancock|n.d.}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Domari? |website=Romani Project |publisher=University of Manchester |access-date=2008-07-23 |date=n.d. |url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/files/21_domari.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=2010-11-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101120230316/http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/files/21_domari.shtml}}</ref><ref name="Matras2">{{Cite CiteSeerX |citeseerx=10.1.1.694.7907 |title=Domari}}</ref> According to Matras:{{sfn|Hérin|2013}}{{sfn|Friedman|2014}}

{{Blockquote
|text=There is, in other words, no evidence that Domari and Romani ever constituted a single language, at any period in their development: but there is on the other hand plenty of evidence that they underwent shared developments as a result of sharing the same geo-linguistic environments during successive periods.
|author=Yaron Matras
|title=''A Grammar of Domari''
}}

There remain similarities between the two, aside from their shared [[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central zone]] Indic origin, indicating a period of shared history as itinerant populations in the Middle East. These include: shared archaisms, which have been lost in the Central Indo-Aryan languages over the millennia since Dom/Rom emigration, a series of innovations connecting them with the [[Northwestern zone]] group, indicating their route of migration out of India, and a number of radical syntactical changes, due to [[superstrate]] influence of Middle Eastern languages, including [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic languages|Arabic]] and [[Byzantine Greek]].

== Phonology ==

=== Vowels ===
There are five main vowel sounds; however, this inventory shows the variation and quantity of short vowels. Most are interchangeable with a vowel sound next to it; however, all of the sounds produced above are identical to the local Palestinian Arabic.{{sfn|Matras|1999}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!
!Front
!Central
!Back
|-
!High
|{{IPA|ɪ}} {{IPA|iː}}
|
|{{IPA|ʊ}} {{IPA|uː}}
|-
!Mid
|{{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|eː}}
|{{IPA|ə}} ~ {{IPA|[ʌ]}} ~ {{IPA|[ɜ]}}
|{{IPA|ɔ}} {{IPA|oː}}
|-
!Low
|
|{{IPA|ɑ}} {{IPA|aː}}
|
|}

=== Consonants ===
Most of these consonants are influenced by Palestinian Arabic such as gemination; however, consonants such as {{IPAblink|p}}, {{IPAblink|ɡ}}, {{IPAblink|tʃ}} and {{IPAblink|h}} are not found in the local dialect. There is speculation among linguists that these sounds are considered a part of the pre-Arabic component. Alveopalatal affricates such as {{IPAblink|tʃ}} and {{IPAblink|dʒ}} are also consonants that differ in sound from Arabic.{{sfn|Matras|2012}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br/>dental]]
! colspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br/>alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!<small>plain</small>
![[Pharyngealization|<small>phar.</small>]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|{{IPAlink|p}}
|
|{{IPAlink|t̪}}
|{{IPAlink|t̪ˤ}}
|{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}
|
|{{IPAlink|k}}
|{{IPAlink|q}}
|
|{{IPAlink|ʔ}}
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
|{{IPAlink|b}}
|
|{{IPAlink|d̪}}
|{{IPAlink|d̪ˤ}}
|{{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}
|
|{{IPAlink|ɡ}}
|({{IPAlink|ɢ}})
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
!<small>voiceless</small>
|({{IPAlink|ɸ}})
|{{IPAlink|f}}
|{{IPAlink|s̪}}
|{{IPAlink|s̪ˤ}}
|{{IPAlink|ʃ}}
|
|{{IPAlink|x}}
|({{IPAlink|χ}})
|{{IPAlink|ħ}}
|{{IPAlink|h}}
|-
![[Voice (phonetics)|<small>voiced</small>]]
|({{IPAlink|β}})
|{{IPAlink|v}}
|{{IPAlink|z̪}}
|{{IPAlink|z̪ˤ}}
|{{IPAlink|ʒ}}
|
|{{IPAlink|ɣ}}
|({{IPAlink|ʁ}})
|{{IPAlink|ʕ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPAlink|m}}
|
|{{IPAlink|n̪}}
|
|
|
|({{IPAlink|ŋ}})
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
|({{IPAlink|ʋ}})
|{{IPAlink|l̪}}
|
|
|{{IPAlink|j}}
|{{IPAlink|w}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Flap
|
|
|{{IPAlink|ɾ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

=== Stress ===
The biggest difference in expression of language between Arabic and Domari is where the stress is placed. Arabic has phoneme-level stress while Domari is a language of word-level stress. The Domari language emphasizes stress on the final syllable, as well as grammatical markers for gender and number. Most nouns, besides proper nouns, adopted from Arabic sound distinct because of the unique stresses in Domari.{{sfn|Matras|1999}} Domari is thought to have borrowed many words and grammatical structures from Arabic; however, this is not entirely true. Complex verbs and most core prepositions did not transfer into the realms of grammar of the Domari language. The syntactic typology remains independent of Arabic influence. It also important to note that the numerals used by the ''Doms'' were inherited from Kurdish. Even though Domari was influenced by local Arabic, the language also felt the impacts of Kurdish and certain dialects of Iranian in the grammar of the language.{{sfn|Herin|2012a}}

== Numerals ==
Here is a table of the numerals (1–10, 20, and 100) in [[Hindi]], [[Romani language|Romani]], Domari, [[Lomavren language|Lomavren]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] for comparison.

{| class="wikitable"
! Numeral !! Hindi !! Romani !! Domari !! Lomavren !! Kurdish !! Persian
|-
| 1 || {{transl|hi|ek}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|ekh, jekh}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|yek, yika}} || {{transl|rmi|yak, yek}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|yak}} || {{transl|fa|yek}}
|-
| 2 || {{transl|hi|do}} ||{{lang|rom-Latn|duj}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|dî}} || {{transl|rmi|luy}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|du}} || {{transl|fa|do}}
|-
| 3 || {{transl|hi|tīn}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|trin}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|tirin}} || {{transl|rmi|tərin}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|se}} ||  {{transl|fa|se}}
|-
| 4 || {{transl|hi|cār}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|štar}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|ŝtar}} || {{transl|rmi|iŝdör}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|čwar, čar}} ||  {{transl|fa|čahār, čār}}
|-
| 5 || {{transl|hi|pāñc}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|pandž}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|panĵ}} || {{transl|rmi|penĵ}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|penc}} ||  {{transl|fa|panǰ}}
|-
| 6 || {{transl|hi|che}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|šov}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|ŝaŝ}} || {{transl|rmi|ŝeŝ}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|ŝaŝ}} || {{transl|fa|šeš}}
|-
| 7 || {{transl|hi|sāt}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|ifta}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|hawt, hoft}} || {{transl|rmi|haft}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|hawt}} ||  {{transl|fa|haft}}
|-
| 8 || {{transl|hi|āṭh}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|oxto}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|hayŝt, haytek}} || {{transl|rmi|haŝt}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|hašt}} || {{transl|fa|hašt}}
|-
| 9 || {{transl|hi|nau}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|inja}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|nu}} || {{transl|rmi|nu}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|no}}|| {{transl|fa|nuh, noh}}
|-
| 10 || {{transl|hi|das}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|deš}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|dez}} || {{transl|rmi|las}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|da}} || {{transl|fa|dah}}
|-
| 20 || {{transl|hi|bīs}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|biš}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|wîs}} || {{transl|rmi|vist}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|bist}} || {{transl|fa|bist}}
|-
| 100 || {{transl|hi|sau}} || {{lang|rom-Latn|šel}} || {{lang|rmt-Latn|say}} || {{transl|rmi|say}} || {{lang|ku-Latn|sa(d), sat}} || {{transl|fa|sad}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Friedman |first=Victor A. |date=2014 |title=A Grammar of Domari by Yaron Matras (review) |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/558424 |journal=Romani Studies |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=227–231 |issn=1757-2274}}
* {{cite web |last=Hancock |first=Ian |title=On Romani Origins and Identity |url=http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_origins&lang=en&articles=true |date=n.d. |website=RADOC |access-date=2008-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717140132/http://www.radoc.net/radoc.php?doc=art_b_history_origins&lang=en&articles=true |archive-date=2011-07-17 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Herin |first=Bruno |title=The Domari Language of Aleppo (Syria) |year=2012a |journal=Linguistic Discovery |volume=10 |issue=2 |doi=10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.412}}
* {{Cite web |last=Hérin |first=Bruno |title=Review of A Grammar of Domari |url=https://linguistlist.org/issues/24.1141/ |date=March 7, 2013}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Herin |first1=Bruno |title=Elements of Domari Dialectology |journal=Mediterranean Language Review |date=2016 |volume=23 |pages=33–73 |doi=10.13173/medilangrevi.23.2016.0033 |jstor=10.13173/medilangrevi.23.2016.0033 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/medilangrevi.23.2016.0033 |issn=0724-7567}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Matras |first=Yaron |date=1996 |title=Domari |url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Domari_ELL2.pdf |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics]] |editor-first=Keith |editor-last=Brown |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |access-date=2009-01-29 |archive-date=2013-10-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029200842/http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_Domari_ELL2.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite journal |last=Matras |first=Yaron |year=1999 |title=The state of present-day Domari in Jerusalem |journal=Mediterranean Language Review |volume=11 |pages=1–58 |jstor=10.13173/medilangrevi.11.1999.0001 }} 
* {{Cite journal |url=http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_legends.pdf |title=Two Domari Legends about the origins of the Doms |last=Matras |first=Yaron |date=2000 |journal=Romani Studies |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=49–75 |doi=10.3828/rs.2000.3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217000515/http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/downloads/2/Matras_legends.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-17}}
* {{Cite book |last=Matras |first=Yaron |year=2005 |chapter=Language contact, language endangerment, and the role of the 'salvation linguist' |title=Language Documentation and Description |volume=3}}
* {{cite book |last=Matras |first=Yaron |year=2012 |title=A grammar of Domari |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |series=Mouton Grammar Library |doi=10.1515/9783110291421 |url=https://theswissbay.ch/pdf/Books/Linguistics/Mega%20linguistics%20pack/Indo-European/Indo-Aryan/Domari%2C%20A%20Grammar%20of%20%28Matras%29.pdf}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rao |first=Aparna |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3458001552.html |title=Peripatetics of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Egypt, Sudan, and Yemen |access-date=20 December 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Cultures |date=n.d.}}
* {{cite journal |last=Williams |first=G. A. |title= The Gypsies of Lebanon: A DRC Update, April 2000 |date=Spring–Summer 2000 |journal=KURI: Journal of the Dom Research Center |volume=1 |issue=2 |url=http://www.domresearchcenter.com/journal/12/lebanon.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171227122106/http://www.domresearchcenter.com/journal/12/lebanon.html |archive-date=2017-12-27}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last=Herin |first=Bruno |year=2012b |title=The Domari language of Aleppo (Syria) |journal=Linguistic Discovery |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=1–52|doi=10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.412 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Herin |first=Bruno |year=2014 |title=The Northern Dialects of Domari |journal=Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft |volume=164 |issue=2 |pages=407–450 |jstor=10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.164.2.0407}}
* {{cite book |last=Herin |first=Bruno |chapter=Northern Domari: Two texts in Aleppo Domari |title=Language Diversity in Iran: New Texts and Perspectives from Non-Iranian Languages |editor=Charles G. Häberl |pages=79-118 |location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |date=2024 |doi=10.1515/9783110641578-004}}
* {{cite book |last=Matras |first=Yaron |year=2002 |title=Romani: a linguistic introduction |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-63165-3}}

==External links==
* [https://iranicaonline.org/articles/gypsy-ii Windfuhr Gernot L. Gypsy ii. Gypsy Dialects] in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition. 2002.
*[https://archive.today/20060202163809/http://www.llc.manchester.ac.uk/Research/Projects/romani/files/21_domari.shtml Description of Domari from the Romani Project]
*[http://www.domresearchcenter.com/journal/12/domari1.html Learning Domari] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927062728/http://www.domresearchcenter.com/journal/12/domari1.html |date=2007-09-27 }} - from the Dom Research Centre
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100402143158/http://www.wix.com/domarisociety/domari-society-website More Information and Official Website of the Dom People]

{{Dom people}}
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[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Dom people|Language]]
[[Category:Languages of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Languages of Sudan]]
[[Category:Languages of Morocco]]
[[Category:Languages of Algeria]]
[[Category:Languages of Egypt]]
[[Category:Languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Iraq]]
[[Category:Languages of Israel]]
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