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This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period; see Hinduism and Indian religions for details of continued religious practices. See Śrauta for the continuing practice of performance of rituals by an oral passing of hymns/chants through generations.

The religion of the Vedic period (also known as Vedism or Vedic Brahmanism or, in a context of Indian antiquity, simply Brahmanism^[1]) is a historical predecessor of Hinduism.^[2] Its liturgy is reflected in the Mantra portion of the four Vedas, which are compiled in Sanskrit. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rites that often involved sacrifices. This mode of worship is largely unchanged today within Hinduism; however, only a small fraction of conservative Shrautins continue the tradition of oral recitation of hymns learned solely through the oral tradition.

Texts dating to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedic Samhitas, but the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chāndogya, Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana) are also placed in this period. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 shrauta priests and the purohitas. According to traditional views, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns were divinely revealed to the rishis, who were considered to be seers or "hearers" (shruti means "what is heard") of the Veda, rather than "authors". In addition the Vedas are said to be "apaurashaya", a Sanskrit word meaning uncreated by man and which further reveals their eternal non-changing status. However, the Rigvedic hymns clearly speak about composing new hymns by individual authors who were in competition with their colleagues and looked to being rewarded (dakṣiṇā) by local chieftains.

The mode of worship was worship of the elements like fire and rivers, worship of heroic gods like Indra, chanting of hymns and performance of sacrifices. The priests performed the solemn rituals for the noblemen (Kshsatriya) and some wealthy Vaishyas. People prayed for abundance of children, rain, cattle (wealth), long life and an afterlife in the heavenly world of the ancestors. This mode of worship has been preserved even today in Hinduism, which involves recitations from the Vedas by a purohita (priest), for prosperity, wealth and general well-being. However, the primacy of Vedic deities has been seconded to the deities of Puranic literature.

Elements of Vedic religion reach back to a Proto-Indo-Iranian religion and an earlier Proto-Indo-European religion. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC, Vedic religion gradually metamorphosizing into the various schools of Hinduism, which further evolved into Puranic Hinduism.^{[citation needed]} Vedic religion also influenced Buddhism and Jainism.^{[citation needed]} However aspects of the Historical Vedic Religion survived in corners of the Indian Subcontinent, such as Kerala where the Nambudiri Brahmins continue the ancient Srauta rituals, which are considered extinct in all other parts.

Rituals

A shrauta yajna being performed.^{[dubious – discuss]}

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include, among others:

The Soma tradition, frequently referred to in the Rigveda and descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice.
Fire rituals:
- The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm,
- The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar.
The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice
The New and Full Moon as well as the Seasonal (Cāturmāsya) sacrifices
The royal consecration (Rajasuya) sacrifice
The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice
The Purushamedha or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha, cf. Purusha Sukta as well as, in its Shrauta form, the Ashvamedha.
The rituals referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as black and white magic.

The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Sintashta and Andronovo culture as well as in Rome (October horse), medieval Ireland, and beyond in Central and East Asia. In India it was allegedly continued until the 4th and even the 18th century CE (Jaya Singh at Jaipur). The practice of vegetarianism may already have arisen in late Vedic times. Although in the Rigveda, the cow's description as aghnya (that which should not be killed) may refer to poetry,^[3] it may be reflective of some of the social practices, as were other practices like rituals and deity worship. Incipient change to contemporary vegetarianism is seen as early as the late Brahmanas and Upanishads and may have continued under the influence of Jainism and Buddhism. Buddhism, according to some, emerged out of a cultural strand distinct from Vedic thought.^[4]

The Hindu rites of cremation are seen since the Rgvedic period; while they are attested from early times in the Cemetery H culture, there is a late Rigvedic reference in RV 10.15.14, invoking forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)".

Pantheon

The Vedic pantheon, similar to its Greek, Slavic or Germanic counterparts, comprises clans of anthropomorphic deities as well as deified natural phenomena, and like the Germanic Vanir and Aesir it knows two classes of gods, Devas and Asuras. The Asuras (Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga, Amsa, etc.) are deities of cosmic and social order, from the universe and kingdoms down to the individual. The Rigveda is a collection of hymns to various deities, most notably heroic Indra, Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods, and Soma, the deified sacred drink of the Indo-Iranians. Also prominent is Varuna (often paired with Mitra) and the group of "All-gods", the Vishvadevas.

Monistic tendencies

In the view of some, the Rigveda, in its youngest books (books 1 and 10) contains hymns for monistic thought that, however, need to be interpreted in the context of the individual hymns, where the 'monistic' trend is not visible. Often quoted are the isolated padas 1.164.46c,

ékam sád víprā́ bahudhā́ vadanti

"To what is One, sages give many a title" (trans. Griffith)

and hymns 10.129 and 10.130, dealing with a creator deity, especially verse 10.129.7:

iyám vísṛṣṭiḥ yátaḥ ābabhūva / yádi vā dadhé yádi vā ná / yáḥ asya ádhyakṣaḥ paramé vyóman / sáḥ aṅgá veda yádi vā ná véda

"He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, / Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows not." (trans. Griffith)

Ékam sát in 1.164.46c means "being one". Such quotes and concepts received emphasis in classical Hinduism, from the time of Adi Shankara at the latest, and they receive emphasis in contemporary Hinduism from monotheistic sects like Arya Samaj and some forms of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

Post-Vedic religions

Vedic religion gradually evolved into Vedanta, which is regarded by some as the primary institution of Hinduism. Vedanta considers itself the 'essence' of the Vedas. The Vedic pantheon was interpreted by a unitary view of the universe with Brahman seen as immanent and transcendent, since the Middle Upanishads also in personal forms of the deity as Ishvara, Bhagavan, or Paramatma. There are also conservative schools which continue portions of the historical Vedic religion largely unchanged until today (see Śrauta, Nambudiri).

During the formative centuries of Vedanta, traditions that opposed Vedanta and which supported the same, emerged. These were the nastika and astika respectively.

Hinduism is an umbrella term for astika traditions in India (see History of Hinduism).
- Puranas, Sanskrit epics^[5]
- the classical schools of Hindu philosophy, of which only Vedanta is extant.
- Shaivism
- Vaishnavism
- Bhakti
- Shrauta traditions, maintaining much of the original form of the Vedic religion.

Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India is believed by some to have co-existed, at least in eastern North India, and closely interacted with the non-Vedic (nastika) Shramana traditions.^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9] These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions.^[6] Following are the religions that evolved out of the Sramana tradition:

Jainism, traditionally from the 9-8th century BCE during Parsva's time. There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic Tirthankaras. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of Mahavira (traditionally put in the 6th Century BCE).
Buddhism, (traditionally put) from ca. 500 BC; declined in India over the 8th to 12th centuries in favour of Puranic Hinduism.

Notes

^ The Encyclopedia Britannica of 2005 uses all of "Vedism", "Vedic Brahmanism" and "Brahmanism", but reserves "Vedism" for the earliest stage, predating the Brahmana period, and defines "Brahmanism" as "religion of ancient India that evolved out of Vedism. It takes its name both from the predominant position of its priestly class, the Brahmans, and from the increasing speculation about, and importance given to, Brahman, the supreme power."
^ Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel in Arvind Sharma, editor, The Study of Hinduism. University of South Carolina Press, 2003, page 65: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradiction in terms since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion - at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
^ J. Narten, Acta Orientalia Neerlandica, Leiden 1971, 120-134
^ Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature."
^ Encyclopedia Britannica s.v. Hindu philosophy: "The great epic Mahabharata represents the attempt of Vedic Brahmanism to adjust itself to the new circumstances reflected in the process of the aryanization (integration of Aryan beliefs, practices, and institutions) of the various non-Aryan communities."
^ ^a ^b S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
^ Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur
^ P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism"

@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India  is believed by some to have co-existed, at least in eastern North India,  and closely interacted with the non-Vedic (''[[nastika]]'') [[Shramana]] traditions.<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972">S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."</ref><ref>Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."</ref><ref>Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur</ref><ref>P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism" </ref> These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but movements with mutual influences with Brahmanical traditions.<ref name="S. Cromwell Crawford 1972"/> Following are the religions that evolved out of the Sramana tradition:
+*[[Jainism]], traditionally from the 9-8th century BCE during [[Parsva]]'s time. There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic [[Tirthankaras]]. In this view, Jainism peaked at the time of [[Mahavira]] (traditionally put in the 6th Century BCE).
-*[[Jainism]], historically from the 9-8th century BCE during [[Parsva]]'s time. There are Jaina references to 22 pre-historic [[Tirthankaras]] in the vedas.<ref> {{cite book | last =Shah | first =Natubhai | title =Jainism: The World of Conquerors | publisher =Sussex Academy Press | date =1998 | location =Sussex | series =Volume I and II | isbn =1898723303 }} Vol. 1 p. 9 ''Rgveda, said to be earliest book extant includes hymns referring to the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabhadeva. It describes him as a great man in the Sramana (that is, Jain) tradition and refers also to the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha.''</ref> <ref> {{cite book | last =Sangave | first =Dr. Vilas A. | title =Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture | publisher =Popular Prakashan | date =2001 | location =Mumbai | isbn =8171548393 }} pp. 3–4 ''The existence of Jain religion can not only be traced to the vedic period, but even to the Indus valley period. The names of Jain Torthankaras are mentioned in the Vedas and there is evidence to show that Indus valley people must be worshipping Rishabhadeva, the first Jain Tirthankara.'' </ref> However, Jainism peaked at the time of [[Mahavira]] (traditionally put in the 6th Century BCE).
-*[[Buddhism]], historically from ca. 500 BC; [[decline of Buddhism in India|declined]] in India over the 8th to 12th centuries in favour of Puranic Hinduism.
+*[[Buddhism]],  from ca. 500 BC; [[decline of Buddhism in India|declined]] in India over the 8th to 12th centuries in favour of Puranic Hinduism.
 ==Notes==