Indonesia
Republic of Indonesia Republik Indonesia | |
---|---|
Motto: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese/Kawi: Unity in Diversity) National ideology: Pancasila | |
Anthem: Indonesia Raya | |
Capital and largest city | Jakarta |
Official languages | Indonesian |
Government | Republic |
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono | |
Jusuf Kalla | |
Independence From the Netherlands | |
• Declared | 17 August 1945 |
• Recognised | 27 December 1949 |
• Water (%) | 4.85% |
Population | |
• 2005 estimate | 222,781,000 (4th) |
• 2000 census | 206,264,595 |
GDP (PPP) | 2005 estimate |
• Total | $977.4 billion (15th) |
• Per capita | $4,458[1] (110th) |
HDI (2003) | 0.697 medium (110th) |
Currency | Rupiah (IDR) |
Time zone | UTC+7 to +9 (various) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+7 to +9 (not observed) |
Calling code | 62 |
ISO 3166 code | ID |
Internet TLD | .id |
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a nation of islands that consists of 18,110 islands in the South East Asian Archipelago. The capital is Jakarta, formerly known as Batavia. Indonesia (from Greek: indus = India nesos = islands) is the world's largest archipelagic nation, and it is bordered by the nations of Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. With a population of over 200 million, it is the world's fourth most populous country and most populous Muslim-majority nation.
The Indonesian archipelago, specifically Java, was inhabited by Homo erectus -- the Java Man -- about 500,000 years ago, while the island of Flores was home to what, as of 2006, may be a newly discovered species of hominid, Homo floresiensis.
The region was an important trade route to China, thriving in trade of spices. Regional Hindu kingdoms expanded religious and cultural influences of Hinduism as well as Buddhism, and in the Middle Ages, the islands came under the influence of Islam. The region was colonized by the Netherlands as the Dutch East Indies. The people across many islands rebelled in the early 20th century against Dutch control. After a brief occupation by Imperial Japan during World War II, nationalists declared independence in 1945, and a united and independent Indonesia was recognized in 1949. It was also recognized by the United Nations in 1950.
Indonesia is a unitary state, and for most of its post-independence history, was first governed by Sukarno, leader of the national independence struggle, and then under controversial and authoritarian Suharto. Democracy was restored following the revolution of 1998. Although the national language is Indonesian (called Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian) and the population is overwhelmingly Muslim, there are several hundred diverse linguistic and ethnic groups across the country, as well as other religious communities. Although Indonesia's economy is progressive and regionally important, the problems of widespread corruption, poverty, illiteracy, political instability and regional separatism remain major issues hindering national development.
History
The area that now comprises the archipelago of Indonesia, specifically Java, was inhabited by Homo Erectus approximately 500,000 years ago. [2] Other prehistoric men including Homo Sapiens and Homo Floresiensis date back 40,000 and 10,000 years ago consecutively.[3]
By the seventh century, spice traders from India and Arabian countries arrived on Indonesian shores, bringing with them Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam. These influences had contributed to the existence of earlier empires in Indonesia such as Kutai, Sailendra, and Mataram. European traders first arrived in the early sixteenth century mainly to seek highly-prized nutmeg, cloves and cubeb or pepper. Although the Portuguese were the first Europeans, the Dutch and British followed.
During the time of the spice trades the Dutch became the most dominant traders in Indonesia. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) was established in the seventeenth century to maximise the trading. However, the VOC went bankrupt and the government of The Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a fully-fledged colony. The British to ruled Java under Thomas Stamford Raffles for a brief period from 1811 while The Netherlands was involved in the Napoleonic Wars[4]. The Dutch colonial presence in Indonesia existed in various forms for over 300 years until Japanese occupation during second World War. [5].[6] During the occupation, former President Sukarno agreed to work with the Japanese, although his motivation was the ultimate goal of Indonesian independence.[7] On August 17, 1945, Sukarno, with the National Committee of Independence (BPUPKI) (which organised by Japan) uniterally declared Indonesian Independence.[8] Sukarno then became the first president while Muhammad Hatta became the vice-president. However, in the following year, Netherlands tried to reoccupy the nation, although the independece had been supported internationally.[9]
Suharto became the president in 1967 with intention of securing the country against an alleged communist coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno.[10] Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era.[11] Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial economic growth. However, Suharto was accused of corruption and was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the Indonesian Revolution of 1998.[12] Eventually, on May 21, 1998, President Suharto announced his resignation and Vice President BJ Habibie became the next Indonesian president.[13] Between 1998 and 2004, Indonesia had three presidents, which were BJ Habibie, Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati Sukarnoputri.[14] This situation was affected by the political and economical instability at that time. One event was the East Timor's referendum held by former President BJ Habibie resulting in the riots in the province; which later separated from the country in 1999.[15][16] Habibie decided not to run for a second term which paved the way for Abdurrahman Wahid, although he only governed for two years because of a corruption scandal (although he was not directly implicated) and he was plagued by serious health problems.[17] In accordance with the Indonesian constitution, Wahid's vice president Megawati Sukarnoputri, became president and served from 2001 to 2004. In Indonesia's first direct election, the current president, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, defeated Megawati.[18]
Government and politics
Template:Morepolitics Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system, and a unitary state with power concentrated with the national government. The President of Indonesia is directly-elected for five-year terms, and is the head of state, commander-in-chief of Indonesian armed forces and responsible for domestic governance and policy-making and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who do not have to be elected members of the legislature.
The highest legislative body is the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or 'People's Consultative Assembly', consisting of the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR, Deputy Speaker: Agung Laksono) or People's Representative Council, elected for a five-year term, and the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah or Regional Representatives Council. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber in an effort to increase regional representation.[19]
During the regime of president Suharto, Indonesia built strong relations with the United States[20] and had difficult relations with the People's Republic of China owing to Indonesia's anti-communist policies and domestic tensions with the Chinese community[21][22].
It received international condemnation for its annexation of East Timor in 1978.[23] Indonesia is a founding member of the Association of South East Asian Nations,[24] and thereby a member of both ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit. Since the 1980s, Indonesia has worked to develop close political and economic ties between South East Asian nations, and is also influential in the Organization of Islamic Conference. Indonesia was heavily criticized between 1998 and 1999 for allegedly suppressing human rights in East Timor, and for supporting violence against the East Timorese following the latter's secession and independence in 1999.[25]
Following the loss of East Timor in 1999, the Indonesian Government has found considerable, but not complete success in managing separatist issues in Aceh and Papua. Under the administration of President Yudhoyono, a cease fire agreement was reached with the Free Aceh Movement (Gerakan Aceh Merdeka or GAM) in 2006, and in Papua there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported lessening of violence and human rights abuses [26] In 2006, sensitivities over the Papua issue resulted in the Indonesian Government recalling its ambassador to Australia following that country's government granting protection visas to 42 Papuan asylum seekers.[27]
After the 2002 Bali bombing, terrorist activities have become increasing significant in Indonesia. The bombing, in which 202 people, including 164 international tourists died, destroyed two nightclubs in Kuta, Bali.[28] By looking at the number of international tourist deaths, the terrorist activity has been taken very seriously not only by the Indonesian government, but also international world, including Australia, The United States and The United Kingdom.[29] Since 2001, the government of Indonesia has co-operated with the U.S. in cracking down on Islamic fundamentalism and terrorist groups.[30] Over the next four years there were several other terrorist attacks including the 2003 Marriott Hotel bombing, 2004 Jakarta embassy bombing and 2005 Bali bombing. As a result, a number of countries have issued travel warnings for international tourists and workers.[31]
Administrative divisions
Indonesia currently has 33 provinces, of which three have special status and one is a special capital region. The provinces are subdivided into regencies and cities, which are further subdivided into subdistricts.
Indonesian provinces:
|
|
(*) The provinces which have special status.
The special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other provinces, and so have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of sharia (Islamic Law) in 2003; Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the widely popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's de facto governor for life. Papua (formerly called Irian Jaya) has had special status since 2001. The special capital region is Jakarta. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems.
East Timor was occupied by Indonesia from 1975 following a military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished its claims in 1999 after years of bitter fighting against East Timor guerrillas and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians. Following a period of transitional administration by the UN, it became an independent state in 2002.
Geography
At 1,919,440 km² (741,050 mi²), [32] Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in area and its population density of 120.5 people per square kilometer ranks 98th in the world.
Indonesia's 18,108 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited,[33] are scattered around the equator, giving the country a tropical climate. The most populated islands are Java (one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives), Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi, also known as Celebes. Indonesia borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo (Indonesian: Kalimantan), Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and East Timor on the island of Timor. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal cities of high population include Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Palembang, and Semarang.
Its location on the edges of tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis. Indonesia has at least 66 volacanoes, [34] the most famous being the now-vanished Krakatau (Krakatoa) which was located between Sumatra and Java. Flora and fauna differ markedly between Kalimantan, Bali, and western islands on the one hand and Sulawesi (Celebes), Lombok, and islands further east on the other. This ecological boundary has been called the Wallace line after its discoverer. The line is often given as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a bicontinental country. 45% of Indonesia is covered by forests.[35]
Recent Natural Disasters
A massive earthquake and tsunami on 26 December 2004 devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh. On March 2005, a powerful earthquake destroyed most buildings on Nias Island, west of Sumatra. Hundreds of people were killed. Partly as a result of the need for cooperation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) were restarted and have borne fruit in a peace agreement. Under the agreement, GAM is in the process of being disarmed by international observers and Indonesian troops are being completely withdrawn from the region. GAM members are being permitted to run for office in the region, in a break with the Constitutional requirement that all parties that run for elections must have nationwide support. On the morning of Saturday, May 27, 2006, the city of Yogyakarta was struck by a severe earthquake. More than 6,000 people are currently estimated to have died.[36]
Economy
Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber. Some big industries in Indonesia are petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel and mining. Bank Indonesia, the country's central bank was established in 1974 and received its independent central bank status in 1999[37]. In 2005, the industrial production growth rate was 4.8%, made Indonesia on the 73th place on the world rank. Indonesia's major trading partners are Japan, the United States, Singapore, Malaysia and Australia.
The country has extensive natural resources outside Java, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper and gold. Indonesia is the world’s largest LNG producer, exporting about 20% of the world’s total volume in 2002.[38] Apparently, in 2005, the income from exports was larger than the import's expenditure with $83.64 billion and $62.02 billion respectively. Indonesia's imports commodities include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs.[39]
Despite being the only East Asian member of OPEC, Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004.[40] The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages.[41] In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. The government has stated to reduce subsidies, aiming to reduce the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.7% last year. The real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Indonesia is projected to reach 5.2% in the second half year of 2006.[42]
Since the late 1990s, Indonesia's economy suffered a drastic downturn followed by an at times patchy and slow recovery. This was due not only to the financial crisis that struck much of east Asia at the time, but also, due to corruption at all levels and a perceived slow pace of economic reform.[43]
Indonesia has received many aids in economic sector, which are varies in bilateral, multilateral and non-governmental organization (NGO). In addition to this, although Indonesia finished its IMF program in December 2003, the country still receives bilateral aid through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI) which reached $2.8 billion for 2004 and 2005. Another aid was intended for the post-Tsunami reconstruction in Aceh through the NGO and reached $5 billion. The total of aid for Indonesia is $43 billion.[39]
Demographics
Indonesia's population statistics are difficult to estimate. In the 2000 national census, an initial population estimate of 203 million was recorded, with estimations of citizens in Aceh and Papua, although later the Indonesian government later revised the estimate up to 206 million.[44] The country's Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia quote 222 million as the population for 2006,[45] Some parts of Indonesia are some of the most densely populated areas in the world: for example, Java is the most populous island in the world.[46]
Ethnic groups
Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is mostly occupied by Malay people, while the east is more Pacific and people on the island of New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of Melanesia. The total number of ethnic in Indonesia is 300 and the total number of different dialects is 742.[47][48] Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
Indonesia is a diverse country not without its ethnic tensions, particularly between Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity and the pribumi peoples, who are considered natives of Indonesia,[49] "Non-Pribumi" people are not always considered entirely Indonesian.[50] The riots in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998 highlight this recurring tension. Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to a perception that the Chinese community is too rich relative to the Pribumis.[51] The Indonesian government is attempting to remedy problems which helped trigger the riots,[52] but due to widespread corruption and discontent experienced by poorer Indonesians, ethnic harmony is slow in coming. The corruption, collusion, and nepotism ('KKN' is the Indonesian abbreviation) which characterized Suharto presidency, built up a public resentment that led to the eventual downfall of the Orde Baru (New Order) regime but also clearly exacerbated ethnic tensions in Indonesia.[53]
The Government sponsored transmigration since independence through to the late 1990s, has in part contributed to spread of people from highly populated Java in the west towards eastern Indonesia. This brings a number of crisis because of the difference in religion of people from Java, which mainly are muslims and local people. The examples are crisis between Javanese and Maduranese.[52] Other crisis happened in West Kalimantan, where some members of the local Dayak community massacred hundreds of Madurese, and the survivors ran for their lives.[54] Other fatal conflicts, which were at least partly sparked by differences between internal migrants and members of the pre-existing local population, include Ambon,[55] Central Sulawesi,[56] and parts of Papua and West Irian Jaya (formerly known as Irian Jaya).
Languages
The official national language, Indonesian (called Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesian), is universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education and academia. Yet, in isolated areas even on the major islands it is not uncommon to find villagers who are not familiar with Indonesian. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia (and is thus closely related to Malay), accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony, and declared the official language after independence.
Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundreds of local languages (bahasa daerah) as their first tongue, with Javanese the most widely-spoken being the language of the country's largest ethnic group.[39]
Although Islam is the dominant religion, Arabic is not spoken in Indonesia, except for some religious functions, although even then, Indonesian is mostly used.
Religion
Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 86% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census,[39] making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 11% Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant, and a large minority Charismatic), 2% Hindu and 1% Buddhist. Before the arrival of the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity and Islam in the Malay Archipelago, the popular beliefs in region had been thoroughly influenced by Indic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. Although Islam was once mainly practised in Java and parts of Sumatra, the transmigration program has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and Papua. Although only about 3% of Indonesians are officially Hindu, Indonesian beliefs are too complex to classify as belonging to a single world religion. Some religions have been slightly transformed and blended with local belief such as Abangan on Java island and other mixed belief systems in North Sumatra and on Borneo island.[57]
Culture
Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups each with cultural differences which have shifted over the centuries. One example is the Borobudur temple, which is a mix of Hinduism and Javanese culture, as it was built by a Javanese dynasty, the Sailendra. Indonesia has also imported cultural aspects from Arabic, Chinese, Malay and even European sources.
Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology. Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese wayang kulit shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events. Several islands are famous for their batik, ikat and songket cloth.
Pencak Silat is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.
Indonesian music varies within cities and groups as people who live in the countryside would listen to a different kind of music than people in the city. Although rock was introduced in Indonesia by Indonesian rock band, God Bless (see Ian Antono),[58] native Indonesian music is still preserved. Examples of Indonesian traditional music are Gamelan and Keroncong. A more modern form of Indonesian native music is Dangdut.
Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media. [59] The TV market includes 10 national commercial networks, which compete with public TVRI. Some provinces also operate their own stations. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters can supply programmes. The radio dial is crowded, with scores of stations on the air in Jakarta alone. Internet use is increasing Bisnis Indonesia reported in 2004 that there were 10 million users.
See also
Further reading
- Llyod G and Smith S, Indonesia Today, Lanham, Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001, 343 pages, ISBN 0-7425-1761-6
- Theodore Friend, Indonesian Destinies, Harvard University Press, 2003, hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 0-674-01137-6
- Steven Drakeley: The history of Indonesia, Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood, 2005, 201 pages, ISBN 0-313-33114-6
- Extensive list of Indonesian conflict related resources on Blogger.com by studi konflik indonesia
Notes
- ^ International Monetary Fund Estimate
- ^ Heslip, Steven (2001). "Homo erectus". ANP 440 course material. Michigan State University.
- ^ "Indonesia - History". U.S. Library of Congress.
- ^ Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. "Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles". History of Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, Department of Biological Sciences, The National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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(help) - ^ Sejarah Indonesia: An Online Timeline of Indonesian History, Gimonca.com, web site [http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah02.shtml "1500 to 1670: Great Kings and Trade.
- ^ Moser, John (2005). "Turning the Tide in the Pacific, 1941-1943".
- ^ Toer, Pramoedya Ananta (1999). "Sukarno".
- ^ Smitha, Frank E. "Independence for Indonesia".
- ^ "Indonesian War of Independence" Dutch wanted to reoccupy Indonesia
- ^ Roosa, John and Nevins, Joseph (2005) "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia"
- ^ The Library Congress. "History of Indonesia #10".
- ^ Parker, Randall (2004). "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".
- ^ Parker, Randall (2004). "Suharto Of Indonesia Embezzled Most Of Any Modern Leader".
- ^ Clara, Renee. "AROUND THE WORLD 1: Indonesia Elects President".
- ^ Evenson, Paul (2006). "East Timor Factsheet".
- ^ Hefner, Robert W (2000). "Religious Ironies in East Timor".
- ^ Barber, Greg (2001). "Abdurrahman Wahid". Press release.
- ^ http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Indonesian/Indonesian Elections/Election text.htm Indonesian Elections]. Elections in Indonesia since 1955 until 2004
- ^ Indonesian Embassy, China, Regional Representatives Council
- ^ Wiryono, S (1996). "Online Transcript". Address by Indonesian Ambassador to Australia to Course 35/96 of the RAN Staff College Sydney. Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Canberra.
- ^ Indonesian Legal Studies Foundation (March 2006). "Discrimination against Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia" (PDF). FOCUS Asia=Pacific, Vol.43, pp2-3. Asia-Pacific Human Rights Information Center (HURIGHTS OSAKA).
- ^ Human Rights Watch (2 Nov 1997). "Discrimination against Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia". HRW.org, New York.
- ^ Burr, W. (6 Dec 2001). "Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975:New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. National Security Archive, The George Washington University, Washington, DC. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
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suggested) (help) - ^ BERNAMA (6 Dec 2001). "Country Profile Indonesia: Great Archipelago of Diversity". BERNAMA.com: 11th Annual ASEAN Summit 2005. BERNAMA.
- ^ "International Religious Freedom Report". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. U.S. Department of State. 2002-10-17. Retrieved 2006-09-29.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ Lateline TV Current Affairs (2006-04-20). "Sidney Jones on South East Asian conflicts". TV PROGRAM TRANSCRIPT, Interview with South East Asia director of the International Crisis Group. Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC).
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(help) - ^ International Crisis Group (2006-09-05). "Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). Update Briefing (No. 53). International Crisis Group: 1. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
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(help) - ^ "Commemoration of 3rd anniversy of bombings". AAP. The Age Newspaper. 2006-12-10.
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(help) - ^ Cambrensis, Giraldius (2006-03-08). "Australia: Islamist Bomb Threats Taken Seriously". Western Resistance.
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(help) - ^ Huang, Reyko (2002-23-05). "Priority Dilemmas: U.S. - Indonesia Military Relations in the Anti Terror War". Terrorism Project. Center for Defense Information.
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(help) - ^ "Travel Warning: Indonesia". US Embassy, Jakarta. 2005-5-10.
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(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=
(help) - ^ Central Intelligence Agency (2006-09-07). "Rank Order Area". The World Factbook. US CIA, Washington, DC. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
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(help) - ^ "Indonesian Geography". U.S. Library of Congress. Country Studies - Indonesia.
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(help) - ^ Topinka, USGS/CVO, 2001; base map modified from CIA map, 1997; volcanoes from: Simkin & Siebert, 1994
- ^ "Indonesia". Global Virtual University. Globalis.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ Sydney Morning Herald (May 28, 2006) More than 3500 killed in Java quake.
- ^ Banking With The Poor Network Bank Indonesia overview
- ^ Energy Information Administration 2004, The Global LNG Market, LNG Exporters Washington DC, viewed 17 Sept 2006
- ^ a b c d Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html
- ^ Guerin, B. (Mar 10, 2005). "Tigers count the cost of easing fuel subsidies". Asia Times Online. Asia Times Online Ltd, Bangkok.
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(help) - ^ BBC News (31 August 2005). "Indonesia plans to slash fuel aid". BBC, London.
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(help) - ^ "IMF Executive Board Concludes 2006 Article IV Consultation and Fifth Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with Indonesia". Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 06/91. International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. August 7, 2006.
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(help) - ^ Guerin, G. (23 May 2006). "Don't count on a Suharto accounting". Asia Tims Online. Asia Times Online Ltd, Hong Kong.
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(help) - ^ BPS-Statistics Indonesia (30 June 2000). "BRIEF ANALYSIS". 2000 Population Statistics. BPS-Statistics Indonesia.
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(help) - ^ Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005-2006 (PDF). Indonesia: Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau. 2006-09-01. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Calder, Joshua (2006-05-03). "Most Populous Islands". Retrieved 2006-09-26.
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(help) - ^ Expat Web Site Association. "An Overview of Indonesia". Living in Indonesia, A Site for Expatriates. Expat Web Site Association, Jakarta.
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(help) - ^ Merdekawaty, E. (2006-07-06). ""Bahasa Indonesia" and anguages of Indonesia" (PDF). UNIBZ - Introduction to Linguistics. Free University of Bozen. Retrieved 2006-07-17.
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(help) - ^ Ocorandi, M. (1998-05-28). "An Analysis of the Implication of Suharto's resignation for Chinese Indonesians". Worldwide HuaRen Peace Mission. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
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(help) - ^ Swasono, M. F. (1997). "Indigenous Cultures in the Development of Indonesia". INTEGRATION OF ENDOGENOUS CULTURAL DIMENSION INTO DEVELOPMENT. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
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(help) - ^ Long, S. (1998-04-09). "The Overseas Chinese". Prospect Magazine. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
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(help) - ^ a b Pudjiastuti, T. N. (2002). "Migration & Conflict in Indonesia" (PDF). International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), Paris. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) Cite error: The named reference "migcon" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Winarta, F. H. (August 2004). "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Belum Menjadi Kenyataan Menjelang HUT Kemerdekaan RI Ke-59". Komisi Hukum Nasional Republik Indonesia (National Law Commission, Republic of Indonesia), Jakarata.
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(help)Template:Id icon - ^ Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research Conflicy in Kalimantan
- ^ Ajawaila, J.W. (1999). Proposal Pemecahan Masalah Kerusuhan di Ambon. Ambon, Indonesia: Fica-Net. Retrieved 2006-09-29.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies Bugis Sailors
- ^ Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15-18, viewed 17 Sept 2006 ISBN979-605-406-x
- ^ Diaz (editor) (2005). "Ian Antono:Pelopor Gitar Hero Indonesia". Biography of Ian Antono. Gitaris.com.
{{cite web}}
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has generic name (help)Template:Id icon - ^ Shannon L., Smith (2001). Indonesia Today: Challenges of History. Melbourse, Australia: Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 0-7425-1761-6.
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External links
Government
- National Portal of Republic of Indonesia Template:Id icon
- Presidential official website
- Antara - National News Agency
- Bank Indonesia - Indonesian Central Bank
- Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia