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Adjarians

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This article is about Adjarians only. For other ethnic Georgians of the Muslim faith, see Muslim Georgians.

Adjarians
აჭარლები, Ačarlebi
  Distribution of the Adjaran dialect
Regions with significant populations
Georgia (mainly Adjara), Turkey
Languages
Adjaran dialect of Georgian language, Turkish language (minority)[1]
Religion
Sunni Islam
Georgian Orthodox Church[2]
Related ethnic groups
Gurians, Lazs, Imerkhevians and other Georgians
Part of a series on
Georgians
ქართველები
The
Kartvelian
people
Nation
Georgia
Ancient Kartvelian people
Subgroups
Culture
Languages
Religion
Symbols
History of Georgia

The Adjarians (Georgian: აჭარლები, romanized: ach'arlebi)[a], also known as Muslim Georgians,[b][4] are an ethnographic group of Georgians indigenous to Adjara in southwestern Georgia. Adjarian settlements are also found in the Georgian provinces of Guria, Kvemo Kartli, and Kakheti, as well as in several areas of neighbouring Turkey.

Adjarians converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule of Adjara. Under the 1921 Treaty of Kars, Adjara was granted autonomy, to protect its Muslim faith. Despite their conversion to Islam, Adjarians have kept the Georgian language (with their own dialect) and traditions.[5] Still, their self-identification is ambiguous as their Islamic background is at odds with the Orthodox faith of their Georgian peers.[4] In the 1926 census, Adjarians were categorised as a distinct ethnic group. In the 1939 census, they were included in the same category as Georgians.[6] Since Georgian independence, most Adjarians consider themselves Georgians,[7][2] but some Georgians have seen Muslim Adjarians as second-class "Turkicized" Georgians.[8][9][6][10][11]

History

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Main article: History of Adjara
Adjarian men's clothing

Adjarians, like other sub-ethnical groups of Georgians, have historically followed Christianity.[12] Although the Ottoman millet system allowed its subjects extensive self-governance and religious freedom, many Adjarians chose to convert to Islam during the 200 years of Ottoman presence in the 16th and 17th centuries.[13][14] The nobility converted first.[15] Adjarians were fully Islamized by the end of the eighteenth century.[15]

During the 1853–1856 Crimean War and the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War, many Adjarians fought on the side of the Turks.[15] The Ottomans were forced to cede Adjara to the expanding Russian Empire in 1878 under the Treaty of Berlin.[16] Russian authorities initially promoted emigration and many Adjarians moved to the Ottoman Empire.[17] However, Russian authorities then tried to win the loyalty of Adjarians by building mosques and madrassas.[17] As a result, many muhacir came back to Adjara.[17]

Adjara became part of the independent Georgian Democratic Republic in 1918. However, in April 1918, the Ottoman Empire invaded Georgia and captured Batumi. On 4 June 1918, the Treaty of Batum was signed, under which Georgia was forced to cede Adjara to the Ottoman Empire.[18] However, due to the Ottoman defeat in the First World War and the Treaty of Mudros, the Ottomans soon withdrew from the territory,[19] and Adjara fell under the temporary occupation of Great Britain.[20] During this time, under the leadership of prominent Adjarian activist Memed Abashidze, the Congress of the Representatives of Muslim Georgians was held on 31 August 1919. It passed a resolution supporting reunification with Georgia and elected Majlis of Georgian Muslims, which represented Muslim Georgians in relation to the British administration.[21]

The British administration ceded Adjara to the Democratic Republic of Georgia on July 20, 1920.[22][23] It was granted autonomy under the Georgian constitution adopted in February 1921 when the Red Army invaded Georgia.[24] Achara joined the territory of Soviet Georgia under the 1921 Treaty of Kars, between the Ottoman Empire and the USSR. The treaty required that Achara would have "administrative autonomy and the right to develop its own culture, its own religion, and its own agrarian regime".[25][26] However, the Soviet atheist ideology dampened religious practice in the region, thus diminishing the Adjarian legitimation for autonomy within the Soviet system. In the 1920s, the Achars rebelled against the Soviet anti-Islamic activities and collectivization reforms.[25] The armed uprising began in the mountainous regions of Adjara in April 1929. Soviet troops were deployed in response and swiftly quelled the revolt.[27]

The Georgian population of Adjara had been generally known as Muslim Georgians until the 1926 Soviet census listed them as Adjarians, separate from the rest of Georgians, counting 71,426 of them.[28] In subsequent censuses (1939–1989), they were listed with other Georgians, as no official Soviet census asked about religion.

There was a resurgence of the Adjarian religious identity during the dissolution of the USSR.[3] Islamic religious practice became the cultural norm, madrassas reopened and the call to prayer sounded from mosques.[3] Local leader Aslan Abashidze leveraged the ongoing Islamic revival to advance his political goals.[3] After the Georgian independence, the first Georgian president Zviad Gamsakhurdia appointed Abashidze as the chairman of Ajaria's parliament in 1991.[29] Taking advantage of the turmoil caused by the Georgian Civil War, War in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, he unilaterally took power without formal agreement and started to withhold tax revenue and capture Adjara's considerable wealth.[3][30] The Head Mufti of Achara, Haji Mahmud Kamashidze, supported Abashidze in his power struggle.[31] However, after Abashidze reached his goals, he stopped using the Muslim movement for his political goals.[3][32] The 2004 Adjara crisis led to Aslan Abashidze stepping down from his post after thousands of Adjarians protested against his rule in Batumi in May 2004, with Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili symbolically proclaiming "Abashidze has fled, Adjara is free".[33]

Ajarians, like Ossetians and Abkhazians, benefit from a special regime to claim Russian citizenship with an expedited application process, perceived as Russian interference by Georgia.[34]

Religion

[edit]

In the sixteenth century, the majority of Adjara's population was Christian. By the end of the eighteenth century, all Adjarians were Muslim.[15] After Adjara was ceded to the Russian Empire in 1878 under the Treaty of Berlin, Adjarians, who were Muslims, were allowed to leave for Turkey.[16] While the Russian authorities supported the Russian Orthodox Church's missionary efforts, they also tried to win the loyalty of Adjarians by building mosques and madrassas and supporting the local Muslim clergy.[17] As a result, many Adjarians emigrants, called Muhacir, came back to Adjara.[17]

The collapse of the Soviet Union and Georgian independence first led to an Islamic revival.[3] However, later Christianity has experienced a strong growth in Adjara, especially among the young, which saw the conversion to Christianity as returning to the religion of ancestors prior to the Ottoman conquest.[35][36][37][38][39][40] However, a number of Adjarians, particularly around Khulo, remain Sunni Muslim.[35] According to Ghia Nodia, as of 2006, many Adjarians are Muslims but consider themselves ethnic Georgians.[2] According to the 2014 census, Muslims make up 94.6% of the population in Khulo Municipality, 74.4% in Shuakhevi Municipality, 62.1% in Keda Municipality and 56.3% in Khelvachauri Municipality. In Batumi and Kobuleti Municipality Muslims make up a minority with 25.4% and 28.8%.[41]

Language

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Adjarians speak Adjarian, a Georgian dialect related to the one spoken in the neighboring northern province of Guria, but with a number of Turkish loanwords. Adjarian also possesses many features in common with the Zan languages (Mingrelian and Laz), which are sisters to Georgian and are included in the Kartvelian language group.[citation needed]

See also

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  • Chveneburi, ethnic Georgians in Turkey many of whom are of Adjarian heritage
  • Laz people, Kartvelian-speaking ethnic subgroup of Georgians

Notes

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  1. ^ Also spelled Adjars, Adjarans, Achars, Acharans, Acharians, Ajars, Ajarians, Adzhars, etc.
  2. ^ However, many Adjarians have converted to Christianity since the fall of the Soviet Union.[3]

References

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  1. ^ Balci, Bayram; Motika, Raoul (2007). "Islam in post-Soviet Georgia1". Central Asian Survey. 26 (3): 335–353. doi:10.1080/02634930701702399. ISSN 0263-4937. Indeed, the Turkish language has not disappeared from remote rural or mountainous areas of Adjaria, where the elders still speak it fluently.
  2. ^ a b c Nodia, Ghia; Scholtbach, Álvaro Pinto (2006). The Political Landscape of Georgia: Political Parties: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects (PDF). Eburon Uitgeverij B.V. p. 10. ISBN 978-90-5972-113-5.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g George 2009, p. 121.
  4. ^ a b George 2009, p. 23.
  5. ^ Khazanov, Anatoly Michailovich (1995). "People with Nowhere To Go: The Plight of the Meskhetian Turks". After the USSR: Ethnicity, Nationalism and Politics in the Commonwealth of Independent States. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-299-14894-2.
  6. ^ a b Toft, Monica Duffy (2003). The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory (PDF). Princeton University Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-691-12383-7.
  7. ^ George 2009, p. 183.
  8. ^ "Ajarians | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  9. ^ de Waal, Thomas (2019). The Caucasus: An Introduction (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-19-068311-5.
  10. ^ "Toward Inclusion: Understanding the Path to Unity in Georgia". Civil Georgia. 11 October 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2024. Among ethnic Georgians, nationalist narratives dating back to the Soviet period highlight fears that minority groups could lay claims over Georgian territory. These fears were substantiated and entrenched by the traumatic experiences of the 1990s. A more fundamentalist narrative portrays minorities as guests or second-class citizens on Georgian territory, which should be subordinated to "true" Georgian national identity (Kartveloba). Against this backdrop, some minorities have perceived integration efforts as assimilation threats to their legitimate ethnic identities.
  11. ^ Zviadadze, Sophie (January 2018). "The Unbearable Lightness of Being Muslim and Georgian: Religious Transformation and Questions of Identity among Adjara's Muslim Georgians". Region: Regional Studies of Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. 7 (1): 36.
  12. ^ "Culture of Adjara". Retrieved 27 July 2024.
  13. ^ George 2009, pp. 99–100.
  14. ^ Bennigsen, Alexandre; Wimbush, S. Enders (1986). Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide. Indiana University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-253-33958-4.
  15. ^ a b c d Sanikidze 2018, p. 249.
  16. ^ a b Hoch & Kopeček 2011, p. 7.
  17. ^ a b c d e Sanikidze 2018, p. 250.
  18. ^ Varshalomidze, Archil (2019). "South-Western Georgia (Ajara) within the Geostrategic Interests of the Ottoman Empire in the First Quarter of XX Century". Herald of Oriental Studies.
  19. ^ Saparov, Arsène (March 2012). "Why Autonomy? The Making of Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region 1918-1925". Europe-Asia Studies. 64 (2): 284. doi:10.1080/09668136.2011.642583. JSTOR 41478346. S2CID 154783461.
  20. ^ Rose, John D. (April 1980). "Batum as Domino, 1919–1920: The Defence of India in Transcaucasia". The International History Review. 2 (2): 266. doi:10.1080/07075332.1980.9640214. JSTOR 40105753.
  21. ^ "მემედ აბაშიძე (ბეგი)". National Parliamentary Library of Georgia. Retrieved 27 July 2024.
  22. ^ Lee, Eric (2017). The Experiment: Georgia's Forgotten Revolution 1918-1921 (1st ed.). London: ZED Books. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-78699-092-1. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  23. ^ Rose, John D. (April 1980). "Batum as Domino, 1919–1920: The Defence of India in Transcaucasia". The International History Review. 2 (2): 286. doi:10.1080/07075332.1980.9640214. JSTOR 40105753.
  24. ^ "Constitution Of Georgia (1921), Article 107". Matiane. 4 September 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  25. ^ a b George 2009, p. 105.
  26. ^ George 2009, p. 100.
  27. ^ Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977), The Cambridge history of Islam, p. 639. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29136-4
  28. ^ Lorimer, Frank (1946). "The Population of the Soviet Union: History and Prospects" (PDF).
  29. ^ "Adjara Celebrates Abashidze's Departure". 6 May 2004.
  30. ^ George 2009, p. 123.
  31. ^ George 2009, p. 175.
  32. ^ George 2009, pp. 122–123.
  33. ^ "Abashidze Flees Georgia". 6 May 2004.
  34. ^ German, Tracey C.; Bloch, Benjamin (2006). "The South Ossetia Conflict: Collision of Georgian and Russian Interests". Politique étrangère. Printemps (1): 51–64. doi:10.3917/pe.061.0051. ISSN 0032-342X.
  35. ^ a b Sanikidze 2018, p. 255.
  36. ^ Köksal, Pınar; Aydıngün, Ayşegül; Gürsoy, Hazar Ege (2019). "Religious Revival and Deprivatization in Post-Soviet Georgia: Reculturation of Orthodox Christianity and Deculturation of Islam". Politics and Religion. 12 (2): 317–345. doi:10.1017/S1755048318000585. ISSN 1755-0483. S2CID 150339133.
  37. ^ Kahraman, Alter (2021). "Azeris and Muslim Ajarians in Georgia: The Swing between Tolerance and Alienation". Nationalities Papers. 49 (2): 308–325. doi:10.1017/nps.2020.7. ISSN 0090-5992. S2CID 225548999.
  38. ^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Georgia : Ajarians". Refworld. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  39. ^ "Ajarians". Minority Rights Group. 19 June 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  40. ^ George Sanikidze and Edward W. Walker (2004), Islam and Islamic Practices in Georgia. Berkeley Program in Soviet and Post-Soviet Studies. University of California, Berkeley Institute of Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies.
  41. ^ "Religious composition of Georgia 2014". pop-stat.mashke.org. Retrieved 29 March 2024.

Sources

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