Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)

Sultanate of Brunei كسلطانن بروني (Jawi) Kesultanan Brunei (Rumi)
1363/68–1888
Flag
The maximum territorial extent of the Bruneian Empire (yellow) with its vassals (light yellow) in 1521.
Status	Vassal of the Majapahit Empire (1368–1408) Sovereign state (1408–1888)
Capital	Kota Batu (1368–1660) Saragua (Sarawak) (1578)[1] Kampong Ayer (1660–1920) [2]
Common languages	Brunei Malay, Old Malay, Old Tagalog, Kapampangan, Arabic and Bornean languages
Religion	Sunni Islam
Demonym(s)	Bruneian
Government	Monarchy
Sultans
• 1363/68–1402	Sultan Muhammad Shah
• 1425–1432	Sharif Ali
• 1485–1524	Bolkiah
• 1582–1598	Muhammad Hassan
• 1828–1852	Omar Ali Saifuddin II
• 1885–1888[3]	Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin
History
• Establishment of the Sultanate	1363/68
• Became a British protectorate	1888
Currency	Barter, Cowrie, Piloncitos, and later Brunei pitis
Preceded by Succeeded by Majapahit Brunei North Borneo Crown Colony of Labuan Raj of Sarawak Dutch East Indies Spanish East Indies Sultanate of Sarawak Maynila Sultanate of Sulu
Today part of	Brunei Indonesia Malaysia Philippines

This article is part of a series on the
History of Brunei
Bruneian Empire Lupah Sug Sultanate of Sulu Rajahnate of Maynila Tondo Bruneian–Igan War Bruneian–Tundun War Castilian War Civil War Manila conflict of 1769 Sabah conflict of 1771
Colonial era Barisan Pemuda Borneo campaign BMO Borneo Brunei People's Party Brunei revolt North Borneo Federation Bruneian Independence Japanese occupation National Development Plan State Council White Rajahs Sarawak Labuan North Borneo
Post-independence Brunei National Solidarity Party Amedeo Crisis National Development Party Golden Jubilee of Hassanal Bolkiah
Topics Capital punishment Constitution Diplomacy Education Islam LGBT Military Navy Monarchy Slavery Sultan Transport
See also List of years in Brunei
v t e

Part of a series on the
History of Indonesia
Timeline
Prehistory Paleolithic Java Man 1,000,000 BP Flores Man 94,000–12,000 BP Neolithic Toba catastrophe 75,000 BP Buni culture 400 BCE–500 CE
Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms Kutai Kingdom 350–1605 Tarumanagara Kingdom 400s–500s Kantoli Kingdom 400s–500s Kalingga Kingdom 500s–600s Melayu Kingdom 600s–1347 Srivijaya Empire 600s–1025 Shailendra Dynasty 600s–900s Mataram Kingdom 716–1016 Bali Kingdom 914–1908 Sunda Kingdom 932–1579 Kahuripan Kingdom 1019–1045 Kediri Kingdom 1045–1221 Dharmasraya Kingdom 1183–1347 Pannai Kingdom 1000s–1300s Singhasari Empire 1222–1292 Majapahit Empire 1293–1527
Islamic sultanates Spread of Islam 800–1600 Peureulak Sultanate 840–1292 Aru Kingdom 1225–1613 Ternate Sultanate 1257–1914 Samudera Pasai Sultanate 1267–1521 Pagaruyung Kingdom 1347–1833 Bruneian Empire 1368–1888 Malacca Sultanate 1400–1511 Sultanate of Sulu 1405–1851 Sultanate of Cirebon 1445–1677 Demak Sultanate 1475–1554 Aceh Sultanate 1496–1903 Sultanate of Ternate 1486–1914 Sultanate of Bacan 1515–1946 Sultanate of Tidore 1500s–1967 Sultanate of Jailolo 1496–1903 Banten Sultanate 1526–present Banjar Sultanate 1526–1863 Kalinyamat Sultanate 1527–1599 Mataram Sultanate 1586–1755 Johor Sultanate 1528s–1877 Kingdom of Kaimana 1600s–1926 Jambi Sultanate 1604s–1904 Palembang Sultanate 1659–1823 Siak Sultanate 1725–1946 Surakarta Sunanate 1745–present Yogyakarta Sultanate 1755–present Deli Sultanate 1814–1946 Riau-Lingga Sultanate 1824–1911
Christian kingdoms Kingdom of Larantuka 1515–1904 Kingdom of Siau 1510–1956 Kingdom of Bolaang Mongondow 1670–1950
Chinese Kongsi federations Heshun Confederation 1776–1854 Lanfang Republic 1777–1884 Santiaogou Republic 1777–1853
European colonization Portuguese Insulindia 1512–1850 Spanish East Indies 1521–1677 Dutch East India Company rule 1602–1799 British Bencoolen 1685–1824 French and British interregnum 1806–1816 Dutch East Indies 1800–1942 1945–1949
Emergence of Indonesia National Awakening 1908–1942 Japanese occupation 1942–1945 National Revolution 1945–1949 United States of Indonesia 1949–1950
Republic of Indonesia Liberal democracy 1950–1959 Guided Democracy 1959–1966 Transition 1966–1967 New Order 1967–1998 Reformasi 1998–present
Regions Jakarta Bali Bogor Bandung
By topic Agriculture Archaeology Currency Economy Education Javanese historical texts Religion Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Judaism Mass media Military Sport Women
Indonesia portal
v t e

The Sultanate of Brunei (Jawi: كسلطانن بروني) or simply Brunei (/bruːˈnaɪ/ broo-NY), also known as the Brunei Empire, was a Malay sultanate, centered around Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Brunei became a sovereign state around the 15th century, when it substantially expanded after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese,^[4][5] extending throughout coastal areas of Borneo and the Philippines, before it declined in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[6] It became a British protectorate in the 19th century.

The limited evidence from contemporary sources poses a challenge in understanding the history of the early Bruneian Sultanate. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for this. As a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei.^[7] Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Western Borneo, while Poli (婆利), probably located in the Aceh region in Sumatra,^[8] is claimed by local authorities to refer to Brunei as well.^[9]

A renegade group from the kingdom of Funan in Cambodia found themselves in Borneo after escaping the Khmer invasion, which is where Brunei's historical roots lie. In honor of its ruler, Raja Kamrun, the early Arab explorers called this new country Kamrun. This name changed throughout time to become Muja, Zabaj, and finally Brunei. The history of the area was also impacted by Srivijaya, from which rulers and their supporters fled to Brunei after Raja Sailendra conquered it.^[10] When these migrants took over Kamrun, the native population was forced to flee into the interior, which may have resulted in the rise of the Murut and Bisaya peoples.^[11]

Brunei is an ancient kingdom located in the Malay Archipelago, alongside other historical kingdoms such as Palembang Tua, Tarumanagara, Perlak, Pasai, Malacca, Gersik, and Demak. The kingdom, known as P'oli or Brunei, is first mentioned in Chinese historical records around 518 AD, situated on an island southeast of Canton, with a maritime journey from Canton to Brunei taking approximately 60 days. According to these records, Brunei was a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom at the time, governing 136 regions.^[12] In 518 AD, the King of Brunei sent envoys to China to strengthen diplomatic relations, bringing gifts like gold mats and other local products for the Chinese Emperor. Five years later, in 523 AD, the King sent another delegation with additional gifts, including seashells, perfumes, and other local goods.^[13]

Around 669 AD, the King of Brunei once again dispatched envoys to China, this time alongside Siamese representatives. During this period, Brunei was referred to in Chinese history as P'olo. The records also note that P'oli or P'olo is equivalent to P'oni (Brunei), located on an island southwest of Chuan-chou. The travel time was recorded as 45 days to Java, 40 days to Palembang, and 30 days to Champa. During the Song dynasty, Brunei, referred to as Puni, was noted as a large and powerful state, ruling over 14 regions and boasting 100 warships. The people were known for their bravery in battle, wielding swords and spears, and wearing armor made of copper for protection against enemy attacks.^[13]

Rice cultivation was the main source of income for the people of Brunei, whose land was said to be extremely productive. Some also fished and reared chickens and goats. In addition to many other handicrafts, the ladies were adept at weaving fabric, creating mats, and constructing baskets. The capital of Brunei, which had around 10,000 residents, was encircled by wooden defences. Like the people's dwellings, the royal palace was covered with nipa palm leaves.^[13]

In 977 AD, a Chinese merchant of Arab descent named P'u-lu-shieh (Fairuz Shah) arrived in Brunei for trade, receiving a warm welcome from the king and the local populace. Upon his return to China, the King requested P'u-lu-shieh to escort his envoy to the Chinese Emperor. P'u-lu-shieh agreed, and the royal delegation was led by Abu Ali (Pu Ya Li), Syeikh Noh (Shih-Nu), and Qadi Kasim (Koh-shin).^[13] They brought letters and gifts for the emperor, including 100 turtle shells, camphor, five pieces of agarwood, three trays of sandalwood, raksamala wood, and six elephant tusks. The letter included three main points: to inform the Emperor about P'u-lu-shieh’s arrival in Brunei and his assistance in repairing the damaged ship; to send envoys to the Emperor as representatives, offering gifts on behalf of the king; and to request the Emperor's assistance in notifying the Champa government to ensure the safety of Brunei's ships stranded there due to storms. Since that time, the relationship between Brunei and China became increasingly close and friendly.^[14]

Known as the "Maritime Silk Road" or "spice road," Brunei's commerce networks were essential in linking it to other areas. As evidence of Brunei's early engagement in foreign affairs, King Hiang-ta of P'oni dispatched an embassy to China in 977 AD. Brunei's historical significance is demonstrated by the fact that it was referred to by names like P'oli and P'oni during the Liang, Sui, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties. In the Temburong District in particular, the term P'oni is still used today. In addition, the family of Awang Alak Betatar is thought to have established the old monarchy in Garang before moving to Kota Batu in 1397 AD.^[11]

In the 14th century, Brunei seems to have been a subject of Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the vassal state of Majapahit,^[15] which had to make an annual tribute of 40 katis of camphor.

After Majapahit invaded Brunei, its subject kingdoms in the Philippines which were formally under its control, rebelled against Brunei, chief of which was the former kingdom of Sulu which besieged and pillaged it.

Its (Brunei's) own empire gone, it would appear to have shrunk to its heartland by Brunei bay. It now paid an annual tribute of 40 kati of camphor to the Majapahit Emperor. But worse was to follow. 1369 marks the absolute nadir of Brunei's fortunes, for in that year its former subjects the Suluks put it to sack. So utterly helpless were the Bruneis, that they had to be rescued by the Majapahit fleet, which drove out the intruders, who departed laden with enormous booty and taking the two precious pearls.

— Robert Nicholl, "Brunei Rediscovered: A Survey of Early Times"^[16]

After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Brunei from 1530 and described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall.^[4][17] During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth sultan, the sultanate controlled the coastal areas of northwest Borneo (present-day Brunei, Sarawak and Sabah) and reached Seludong (present-day Manila) and the Sulu Archipelago, including parts of the island of Mindanao.^{[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25]}

In the 16th century, the Brunei's influence extended as far as the Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and the Sultanate of Sulu in the southern Philippines in particular developed dynastic relations with the royal house of Brunei. Even the Muslim Rajahs of Manila, Rajah Matanda, for example had family-links with the Brunei Sultanate. The Malay sultans of Pontianak, Samarinda and Banjarmasin, treated the Sultan of Brunei as their leader. The true nature of Brunei's relationship with other Malay sultanates of coastal Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago is still a subject of study, as to whether it was a vassal state, an alliance, or just a ceremonial relationship. Other regional polities also exercised their influence upon these sultanates. The Sultanate of Banjar (present-day Banjarmasin), for example, was also under the influence of Demak in Java. The growth of Malacca as the largest Southeast Asian entrepôt in the Maritime Silk Road led to a gradual spread of its cultural influence eastward throughout Maritime Southeast Asia. Malay became the regional lingua franca of trade and many polities enculturated Islamic Malay customs and governance to varying degrees, including Kapampangans, Tagalogs and other coastal Philippine peoples. According to Bruneian folklore, around 1500 Sultan Bolkiah launched a successful northward expedition to break Tondo's monopoly as a regional entrepôt of Chinese trade and established Maynila (Selurong) across the Pasig delta, ruled by his heirs as a satellite.^[26]

Bruneian influence spread elsewhere around Manila Bay, present-day Batangas, and coastal Mindoro through closer trade and political relations, with a growing overseas Kapampangan-Tagalog population based in Brunei and beyond in Malacca in various professions as traders, sailors, shipbuilders, mercenaries, governors, and slaves.^[27][28]

The rising power of the nearby Sultanate of Sulu occurred due to infighting between Bruneian nobles and the king. Brunei eventually lost its authority over the Bajaus and lapsed into a collection of riverine territories ruled by semi-autonomous chiefs.^[29]

By the end of 17th century, Brunei entered a period of decline brought on by internal strife over royal succession, colonial expansion of European powers, and piracy.^[6] Brunei lost much of its territory due to the arrival of the western powers such as the Spanish in the Philippines, the Dutch in southern Borneo and the British in Labuan, Sarawak and North Borneo. By 1725, Brunei had many of its supply routes to the Sultanate of Sulu.^[30]

In 1888, Sultan Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin appealed to the British to stop further encroachment.^[31] In the same year, the British signed a "Treaty of Protection" and made Brunei a British protectorate,^[6] which lasted until 1984, when Brunei gained independence.^[32][33]

The sultanate was divided into three traditional land systems known as kerajaan (crown property), kuripan (official property) and tulin (hereditary private property).^[34]

Arab travelers who explored the Malay Archipelago referred to Brunei as "Ka Selatanga," located to the east of Java and southwest of Luzon. Other Arab explorers called it "Zabaj" or "Zabaji," indicating a land known for producing camphor. Zabaj or Zabaji is said to be situated near the Thousand Islands in the Philippines. Ahmad ibn Majid, a notable Arab navigator who sailed through the Malay Archipelago, referred to Zabaj or Zabaji as "Barni," which corresponds to Brunei. Additionally, the South China Sea, which they navigated en route to China, was also named "Laut Barni" or "Brunei Sea."^[35]

The Arab explorers described Brunei's capital as a city built on water, with a hot climate which experienced tidal changes twice a day. They noted the presence of peacocks, monkeys, and talking cockatoos, which sported feathers in white, red, and yellow. The region was rich in natural resources, producing camphor, gold, spices, nutmeg, and sandalwood. The Arab travelers also recognised Brunei as a significant kingdom within the Malay Archipelago, boasting a strong military presence. Its naval bases were strategically located at crucial river estuaries, commanded by a Pengiran and his followers, who were responsible for maintaining the safety and security of the people and the state.^[35]

Most of Brunei's population resided around Brunei Bay, engaging in various occupations such as fishing and farming, while others became skilled sailors, brave warriors, and successful traders. According to Arab explorers, Brunei's port was safe, sheltered, and prosperous, attracting merchants from diverse backgrounds, including those from China, Java, Siam, Palembang, Kelantan, Pahang, Cambodia, Makassar, Pattani, and Suluk. During this period, the goods traded at Brunei's port included camphor, gemstones, wax, honey, pearls, gold, spices, pottery, silk, tin, rattan, and various foodstuffs. The bustling trade and the wide variety of goods exchanged at the port underscore Brunei's significance in the region's commerce and its connections with different cultures.^[35]

The histories of the Liang, Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties all indicate that Brunei and China had a cordial connection. Both kingdoms' kings often dispatched envoys from their respective areas with gifts and messages. At the same time, traders also came to the ports of both kingdoms to do business. Brunei–China relations deteriorated during the Yuan dynasty. Chinese rulers of the period prioritized war and territory conquest. Under Kublai Khan's leadership, a military expedition headed by General Su P'e was sent to the Malay Archipelago in 1292 AD with the goal of attacking many nations, including Brunei. But the invading army were effectively repulsed by Brunei's soldiers. Feeling embarrassed to go back home, the vanquished Chinese troops asked the King of Brunei for permission to reside in the Kinabatangan valley, which is part of Sabah and is governed by Brunei. They founded a hamlet there when the King accepted their request.^[14]

According to the histories of the Ming dynasty, in 1370 AD, a Chinese Emperor's ambassador on his way to Java made a halt in Brunei. The King of Brunei was titled Mahamosa, which is taken from the Chinese pronunciation of Sultan Muhammad Shah, according to this mission, which was headed by Sin Tze and Chang Ching Tze. According to Sin Tze the monarch was bold, powerful, and furious. But he also stated that Brunei's defenses were weakened because of the Suluk people's annihilation. Because of Brunei's poverty and continued tribute to Majapahit, Muhammad Shah was hesitant to follow Sin Tze's advice to seek protection from China and to deliver tribute. The Sultan eventually decided to send an embassy to China after being convinced by the envoy's logical arguments. Alongside the Chinese ambassador returning from Java in 1371, his delegation set ship for China.^[36]

Under the reign of Hongwu, the relationship between Brunei and China strengthened further. In 1375, a royal prince from China named Ong Sum Ping visited Brunei and eventually married Princess Ratna Dewi, the daughter of Muhammad Shah, earning the title Pengiran Maharaja Lela. Ong's brother also married Pengiran Bendahara Pateh Berbai. In 1397, during the reign of Jiawen, an envoy from Muhammad Shah visited China along with envoys from Annam, Siam, Java, Palembang, and Pahang. This time, the Brunei delegation was officially recognized as representing Brunei rather than P'oni, as the kingdom had relocated to Kota Batu.^[36] In 1402, the reigning king was Manajekana, also known as Sultan Abdul Majid. In 1403, the Sultan sent an envoy to inform the emperor of his father's passing. By 1405, he dispatched another envoy to request formal recognition from the emperor, who was pleased to receive this honour. In the same year, the emperor sent an official delegation led by Cheng Ho to Brunei, bringing royal seals and gifts as a gesture of goodwill.^[37]

During Abdul Majid's rule, Brunei's ties with China grew stronger. On August 20, 1408,^[38] the Sultan traveled to China with a retinue of 150 family members. After two months in China, he fell ill and died at the age of 28 October 1408, with his remains interred on the slopes of a hill named Shih-tzu Kang in Nanking. To fulfill Sultan Abdul Majid's wishes, the Chinese emperor appointed Hsia-wang, the Sultan's son, as the King of Brunei. After spending a year in China, Hsia-wang returned to Brunei, escorted by Chinese officials led by Chong Chien. During Hsia-wang’s absence, the throne was held by his uncle, Pateh Berbai, who took the title Sultan Ahmad, as Hsia-wang was only four years old at that time. Between 1415 and 1425, relations between Brunei and China remained stable, with Brunei sending four envoys to China during those years. However, after 1425, the relationship began to deteriorate, and it was not until 1530 that Brunei sent envoys to China again, alongside delegations from Siam, Champa, and Java.^[37]

An Italian explorer, Antonio Pigafetta, on a return trip to Spain, stopped at Brunei in July 1521. He recorded that the Malays had stayed in Brunei for a long time and had a high level of civilization. Forts were built that mounted heavy guns and equipped with horses and trained elephants. In the house of the Sultan, there were silver candlesticks and gold spoons on the table.^[39]

• Historical Atlas: History of Brunei
• Expanding Boundaries of Sarawak including territorial gains from the Sultanate of Brunei
• British treaties regarding North Borneo including cession agreement from the Sultanate of Brunei