Botanice

Botanice,^[1] saepe botanica^[2][1] (ex Graeco βοτάνη 'pascua, gramen, pabulum' < βόσκειν 'pasci, vesci'), vel phytologia, antique ars herbaria, hodie aliquando scientia plantarum et biologia plantarum, est pars biologiae et scientia vitae plantarum^[3] (Gordh et Headrick 2001:134; Liddell et Scott 1940; Online Etymology Dictionary 2012). Haec disciplina in litteris a maioribus traditis studium fungorum, algarum, et viruum comprehendit. Qui litteris rerum botanicarum studeat botanista appellatur.

Botanice latum disciplinarum scientificarum spatium tractat, inter quas structura, auctus, reproductio, metabolismus, progressus, phytopathologia, proprietates chemicae, et evolutionariae gregum taxinomicorum coniunctiones. Botanice initium habuit cum primi homines plantas edules, medicinales, venenosas distinguere conati essent; quo facto, botanice facta est una ex veterrimis scientiae generibus. Hodie botanistae circa 400 000 specierum organismorum vivorum student.

Initium systematum classificationis modo hodierno per Renascentiam saeculorum sexti decimi et septimi decimi ortum est, cum botanistae conatus ad describendas plantas secundum principia scientifica primum facerent. Saeculis undevicensimo et vicensimo, maiores artes novas ad investigandas plantas evolutae sunt, inter quas usus microscopiorum, enumeratio chromosomatum, et explicatio phytochemiarum. Duobus recentissimis saeculi vicensimi decenniis, DNA ad accuratius describendas plantas adhiberi coepit.

Investigationes botanicae greges plantarum, evolutio, physiologia, structura, et systematica vehementius dicunt. Inter subdisciplinas botanicas sunt agronomia, silvicultura, horticultura, et palaeobotanica. Inter scientistas maximi momenti in historia botanica sunt Theophrastus, Ibn al-Baitar, Carolus Linnaeus, Gregorius Ioannes Mendel, et Normannus Borlaug.

Historia botanices multas scripturas antiquas et classificationes plantarum in nonnullis novis culturis repertas comprehendit. Exempla novorum operum botanicorum in antiquis libris sacris Indicis, litteris Zoroastrianis, et antiquis operibus Sinicis inventa sunt.

Botanice hodierna suum initium abhinc saeculorum plus quam viginti tres habuit, usque ad Theophrastum (circa 371–287 a.C.n.), discipulum Aristotelis et patrem botanicum; qui multa botanices hodiernae principia excogitavit et descripsit (Greene 1909:140–142). Sua opera maiora, Historia Plantarum et De Causis Plantarum, scientiae botanicae maxime proerant per antiquitatem et Aevum Medium, et sic nonnulla saecula septendecim postquam scripta manebant (Bennett et Hammond 1902:30; Greene 1909:140–142). Etiam ex Graecia, Pedanius Dioscorides, medio saeculo primo, librum De Materia Medica scripsit, encyclopaediam in voluminibus quinque de medicina herbali quae plus quam 1500 annorum late legebatur (Mauseth 2003:532).

Inter mediaevalia mundi Islamici opera erant Agricultura Nabataea Ibn Wahshiyya, Liber Plantarum Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī (828–896), et Classificatio Solorum Ibn Bassal. Saeculo tertio decimo ineunte, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati et Ibn al-Baitar (mortuus 1248) etiam opera de botanica conscripserunt (Dallal 2010:197; Levey 1973:116; Panaino 2002:93).

Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566), physicus Germanicus, fuit unus ex "tribus Germanis botanices patribus," cum Ottone Brunfels (1489–1534) et Hieronymo Bock (1498–1554), etiam Hieronymo Tragus appellato (National Museum of Wales 2007; Yaniv et Bachrach 2005:157). Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) Dispensatorium, perennem cuiusdam momenti pharmacopoeiam, anno 1546 protulit (Sprague 1939). Conradus Gesnerus (1516–1565) et Nicolaus Culpeper (1616–1654) etiam herbalia de medicinalibus plantarum usibus ediderunt. Ulixes Aldrovandi (1522–1605) diu habebatur "pater historiae naturalis," notionis quae studium plantarum tum comprehendebat. Robertus Hooke, novum microscopium adhibens, cellulas (nomen ab eo factum) in materia ex Quercu suber excisa anno 1665, et mox in textura plantarum vivarum invenit (Waggoner 2001).

Excogitabantur saeculo duodevicensimo systemata classificationis quae clavium diagnosticorum similia sunt, ubi taxa paribus a priori digeruntur. Sequentia taxorum in clavibus saepe ad eorum greges naturales vel phyleticos non spectavit (Scharf 2009:73–117). Ante saeculum undevicensimum, crescens novarum plantarum numerus ex regionibus nove inventis coloniisque Europaeis per orbem terrarum conditis Europam advenierant, et plantae magis atque magis investigari poterant. Libris botanicis illo tempore erant perpaucae picturae (Scharf 2009:73–74). Carolus Linnaeus regnum plantarum in viginti quinque classes anno 1754 secundum taxinomiam divisit cui erant ordinariae specierum animalium et plantarum binomina. Ratione in duabus partibus usus est ubi primum nomen genus et alterum speciem repraesentaverunt (Capon 2005:220–223). Cryptogamia, una ex classificationibus Linnaeanis, omnes plantas quibus sunt partes reproductivae celatae (bryophyta, marchantiophyta, pteridophyta), algas, fungos comprehendit (Hoek, Mann, et Jahns 2005:9).

Aucta anatomiae, morphologiae, circulorumque vitae plantarum gnaritas inventionem promovit naturales inter plantas coniunctiones plures esse quam systema sexuale Linnaeanum significavit. Adanson (1763), de Jussieu (1789), et Candolle (1819) ergo altera systemata naturalia proposuerunt, quae botanistae late secuti sunt. Notiones autem selectionis naturalis ut machinatio evolutionis postulaverunt ut systema Candolleanum immutaretur—quod vicissim studia coniunctionum evolutionariarum et classificationum phylogeneticarum plantarum incitavit (Ereshefsky 1997:493–519; Gray et Sargent 1889:292–293).

Magnopere promota est botanice per divulgationem libri Grundzuge der Wissenschaftlichen, primi operis late patentis "hodierni," a Matthaeo Iacobo Schleiden compositi, annoque 1849 Anglice nomine Principles of Scientific Botany iterum editi (Morton 1981:377). Carolus Ludovicus Willdenow coniunctionem dissipationis seminum et distributionis geographicae, ingenium consociationum plantarum, effectumque historiae geologicae investigavit. Nucleus cellularum a Roberto Brown anno 1831 inventus est (Harris 2000:76–81).

Generatur hodie multa informatio per plantas exemplares investigandas, sicut Arabidopsis thaliana ; quae alacris familiae Brassicacearum species fuit una ex plantis cuius genoma primum ordinatum est. Oryza, quia suum genoma parvum communitasque investigatorum magna est, fit grave frumenti-poacearum-monocotyledonum exemplar in ordinatione plantarum (Devos et Gale 2000). Brachypodium distachyon, alia graminum species, est experimentale biologiae geneticae, cellularis, molecularis intellegendae exemplar (University of California-Davis 2012). Genomata aliorum ciborum qui in commercio momentum habent, inter quos triticum, zea, hordeum, secale, pennisetum, et glycine, nunc ordinantur. Ordinatio nonnullarum plantarum est difficilis quia eis sunt plus quam duae haploidae chromosomatum copiae—condicio polyploidia appellata, in regno plantarum generalis. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, alga viridis, est organismus exemplaris qui ad promovendam scientiam biologiae cellularis magni momenti est (Ben-Menahem 2009:5370).

Anno 1998, Grex Phylogeniae Angiospermarum insigniter phylogeniam plantarum florentium protulit in explicatione sequentiarum DNA ex plurimis plantarum florentium familiis condita. Propter haec studia, multa aenigmata, sicut quae familiae primos angiospermarum ramos repraesentent, soluta sunt. Investigatio coniunctionum specierum plantarum botanistis rationis evolutionis in plantis melius intelligendae facultatem facit (Chase et al. 2003:399–436). Contra studium plantarum exemplarium et crescentem indiciorum DNA usum, taxinomistae in laborando et disputando persistunt de quomodo plantas in varia taxa optime describi possunt (Capon 2005:233).

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• Bellamy, David (1972). Bellamy on Botany. Londinii: Edbury Publishing—BBC Books. ISBN 0-563-10666-2 
• Ben-Menahem, Ari (2009). Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences. 1. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-68831-5 
• Capon, Brian (2005). Botany for Gardeners (2a ed.). Portlandiae Oregnoiae: Timber Publishing. ISBN 0-88192-655-8 
• Capon, Brian (2010). Botany for Gardeners (3a ed.). Portland, Oregioniae: Timber Publishing. ISBN 1-60469-095-X 
• Cohen, Joel E. (1996). How Many People Can the Earth Support?. Londinii: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-31495-2 
• Dallal, Ahmad (2010). Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15911-0 
• Grene, Marjorie Glicksman; Depew, David J. (2004). The Philosophy of Biology: An Episodic History. Cantabrigiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64371-6 
• Halle, Francis (2002). In Praise of Plants. Portland, OR: Timber Publishing. ISBN 0-88192-550-0 
• Iyer, Meena (2009). Faith & Philosophy of Zoroastrianism. Delhi, India: Kalpaz Publications. ISBN 978-81-7835-724-9 
• King, John (1997). Reaching for the Sun: How Plants Work. Cantabrigiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58738-7 
• Morton, A. G. (1981). History of Botanical Science. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback), 0125083823 (paperback) 
• Pakenham, Thomas (1996). Meetings with Remarkable Trees. Londinii: Random House. ISBN 0-375-75268-4 
• Pakenham, Thomas (2002). Remarkable Trees of the World. Londinii: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-04911-6 
• Pollan, Michael (2001). The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World. Novi Eboraci: Public Broadcasting System (TV), Random House (print). ISBN 0-375-50129-0 
• Thomas, Barry A. (1981). The Evolution of Plants and Flowers. Novi Eboraci: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-27271-5 
• Walker, David (1992). Energy, Plants and Man (2a ed.). Sheffield, Angliae: Oxygraphics Ltd. ISBN 1-870232-05-4 
• Yaniv, Zohara; Bachrach, Uriel (2005). Handbook of Medicinal Plants. Binghampton, Novi Eboraci: Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56022-994-2 

• Acharya, Deepak; Anshu, Shrivastava (2008). Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices. Jaipur, India: Aavishkar Publishers. ISBN 81-7910-252-1 
• Bennett, Charles E.; Hammond, William A. (1902). The characters of Theophrastus – Introduction. Londinii: Longmans, Green, and Co. 
• Butz, Stephen D. (2007). Science of Earth Systems (2 ed.). Clifton Park Novi Eboraci: Delmar Cengage Learning. ISBN 1-4180-4122-X 
• Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (2004). "Only Six Kingdoms of Life" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 271: 1251–1262 
• Crawford, R. M. M. (1988). Studies in Plant Survival: An Ecophysical Examination of Plant Distribution (Studies in Ecology). Oxoniae: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-01475-X 
• Chapman, Jasmin; Horsfall, Peter; O'Brien, Pat; Murphy, Jan; MacDonald, Averil (2001). Science Web. Cheltenham, Angliae: Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0-17-438746-6 
• Chase, Mark W.; Bremer, Birgitta; Bremer, Kåre; Reveal, James L.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Stevens, Peter S. (2003). "An Update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group Classification for the Orders and Families of Flowering Plants: APG II" (PDF). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society (The Linnean Society of London) 141: 399–436 
• Copeland, Herbert Faulkner (1938). "The Kingdoms of Organisms". Quarterly Review of Biology 13: 383–420 
• Devos, Katrien M.; Gale, M. D. (Maio 2000). "Genome Relationships: The Grass Model in Current Research". The Plant Cell (American Society of Plant Physiologists) 12 (5): 637–646 
• Ereshefsky, Marc (1997). "The Evolution of the Linnaean Hierarchy". Biology and Philosophy (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 12 (4) 
• Gordh, Gordon; Headrick, D. H. (2001). A Dictionary of Entomology. Cantabrigiae Massachusettae: CABI Publishing. ISBN 0-85199-291-9 
• Gray, Asa; Sargent, Charles (1889). Scientific Papers of Asa Gray: Selected by Charles Sprague Sargent. Bostoniae Massachusettae: Houghton Mifflin 
• Greene, Edward Lee (1909). Landmarks of botanical history: a study of certain epochs in the development of the science of botany: part 1, Prior to 1562 A.D.. Vasingtoniae: Smithsonian Institution 
• Harris, Henry (2000). The Birth of the Cell. Portu Novo Connecticutae: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08295-9 
• Hoek, Christiaan; Mann, D. G.; Jahns, H. M. (2005). Algae: An Introduction to Phycology. Cantabrigiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30419-9 
• Levey, Martin (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources. Leiden: Brill Archive. ISBN 978-90-04-03796-0 
• Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). Botane (βοτάνη). Oxoniae: Clarendon Press via Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University 
• Mann, J. (1987). Secondary Metabolism, 2a ed.. Oxoniae: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-855529-6 
• Matthews, R. E. F. (1992). Fundamentals of Plant Virology. Waltham, Massachusettae: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-480558-2 
• Mauseth, James D. (2003). Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (3a ed.). Sudbury, Massachusettae: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-7637-2134-4 
• Mauseth, James D. (2008). Botany : An Introduction to Plant Biology (4a ed.). Sudbury, Massachusettae: Jones and Bartlett Learning. ISBN 0-7637-5345-9 
• Panaino, Antonio (2002). Ideologies as Intercultural Phenomena: Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, Held in Chicago, USA, October 27–31, 2000. Bononiae: Mimesis Edizioni. ISBN 978-88-8483-107-1 
• Raven, Peter H.; Curtis, Helena (1970). Biology of Plants (1st ed.). Novi Eboraci: Worth Publishers 
• Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray H. (1998). Biology of Plants (6th retractata ed.). Novi Eboraci: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6 
• Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray H.; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). Novi Eboraci: W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2 
• Ridge, Irene (2002). Plants. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925548-2 
• Scharf, Sara T. (2009). "Identification Keys, the “Natural Method,” and the Development of Plant Identification Manuals". Journal of the History of Biology 42 (1): 73–117 
• Scharlemann, J. P. W.; Laurance, W. F. (2008). "How Green are Biofuels?". Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 319 
• Sprague, T. A. (1939). "The Herbal of Valerius Cordus". The Journal of the Linnean Society of London (Linnean Society of London) LII (341) 
• Silyn-Roberts, Heather (2000). Writing for Science and Engineering: Papers, Presentation. Oxoniae: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-4636-5 
• Strange, Richard N. (2003). Introduction to Plant Pathology. West Sussex, Angliae: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-84973-8 
• Walter, Heinrich (1985). Vegetation of the Earth (3a retractata ed.). Novi Eboraci: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-13748-3 
• Willis, Kathy; McElwain, Jenny (2002). The Evolution of Plants. Oxoniae: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850065-3 
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Botanice circumiectus

• Crawley, Michael J. (1997). Plant Ecology (2a ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Ltd. ISBN 0-632-03639-7 
• Ennos, Roland; Sheffield, Elizabeth (2000). Plant Life. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Ltd. ISBN 0-86542-737-2 
• Everitt; Lonard; Little, C. R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock, Texiae: Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 0-89672-614-2 
• Richards, P. W. (1996). The Tropical Rainforest (2a ed.). Cantabrigiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42194-2 
• Stace, Clive Anthony (1997). A New Flora of the British Isles (2a ed.). Cantabrigiae: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-58935-5 

Physiologia plantarum

• Bowsher, Caroline G.; Steer, M. W.; Tobin, A. K. (2008). Plant Biochemistry (2a ed.). Novi Eboraci: Garland Science, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8153-4121-0 
• Buchanan, Bob B.; Gruissem, Wilhelm; Jones, Russell L. (2000). Biochemistry & Molecular Biology of Plants. West Sussex, Angliae: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-943088-39-9 
• Fitter, Alastair H.; Hay, Robert K. M. (2001). Environmental Physiology of Plants (3a ed.). Novi Eboraci: Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-257766-3 
• Lambers, Hans; Chapin III, Francis Stuart; Pons, Thijs Leendert (1998). Plant Physiological Ecology. Novi Eboraci: Springer Science. ISBN 0-387-98326-0 
  • Lambers, Hans; Chapin III, Francis Stuart; Pons, Thijs Leendert (2008). Plant Physiological Ecology (2a ed.). Novi Eboraci: Springer Science. ISBN 978-0-387-78340-6 
• Lawlor, David W. (2000). Photosynthesis (3a ed.). Novi Eboraci: Garland Science. ISBN 1-85996-157-6 
• Salisbury; Ross, Cleon W. (1992). Plant Physiology (4a ed.). Belmont, Californiae: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-15162-0 
• Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardo (1991). Plant Physiology. Redwood City, Californiae: Benjamin/Cummings Publishing. ISBN 0-8053-0245-X 
• Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardo (2002). Plant Physiology (3a ed.). Sunderland, Massachusettae: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0 
• Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardo (2006). Plant Physiology (4a ed.). Sunderland, Massachusettae: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-856-7 .
• Taiz, Lincoln; Zeiger, Eduardor (2010). Plant Physiology (5a ed.). Sunderland, Massachusettae: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-866-4 .

Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad botanice spectant.

Haec stipula ad biologiam spectat. Amplifica, si potes!